Hyflux Essay

In order to maximize the use the use of this natural resource, the Singapore government goes to extent where they recycle and purify the water they capture. These â€Å"policies have developed an expertise in water management that has spawned a host of profitable companies† (Chowdhury, Singapore’s All Wet- TIME, 2009) and one of the major companies in this industry is Hyflux. Hyflux is a Singaporean homegrown water treatment company that†purifies waste-, salt- and rainwater† (Chowdhury, Singapore’s All Wet- TIME, 2009). Hyflux provides a wide-ranging set of integrated services in water and renewable resources, from research and development, membrane manufacturing, process engineering, engineering, procurement and construction to operations and maintenance. Hyflux provides water desalination and filtration solution for its customers and is a global leader in membrane technology and applications for renewable resources and water solution. The company takes pride in its award winning membranes which is one of the company’s main core products. Company Vision To be the leading company the world seeks for innovative and effective environmental solutions. Company Mission To provide efficient and cost-effective solutions to meet our clients’ needs through innovation and technological advancement. Company Values: Boldness – Dare to dream, dare to do and dare to excel Entrepreneurship – Nurture the entrepreneurial spirit, embrace challenge and master change Satisfaction – Exceed internal and external customer satisfaction, take pride in work and deliver excellence Testimony – Be the face behind the brand, excel in business conduct and embrace best practices in corporate governanceHyflux has 2,000 staff worldwide (Hyflux Ltd.NA) including â€Å"200 multidisciplinary membrane specialists, researchers and scientists† (Hyflux Ltd. , NA) in the company’s networks of innovative centers and plants. Employees are widely diverse not only in terms of the countries they are from but also in their previous working background, cultures and experiences. The diverse workforce of Hyflux contributed greatl y to the success of the company through high productivity, creative thinking and effective and efficient decision making. Hyflux started business and is established in Singapore in the year 1989 and since then it has grew and built 1,000 plants in more than 400 countries worldwide. Appendix 1. 1 highlights some of the countries in which Hyflux operates in. In the countries they have plants and operate in, they provide different types of services and products. For example, in Dubai, they provide services in the sewage treatment industry and providing Kristal Membrane products while in Thailand, the company operates in both wastewater reclamation industry and chemical industry providing Kristal and FerroCep membranes. The fame and reputation of Hyflux grew bigger in Singapore and in the year 2001, it became the first water treatment company in Singapore to be listed in the Singapore Stock Exchange. The current financial standing of the company, a table is shown below comparing last year’s final year reports and this year’s reports Source: Hyflux Year end news release 2010 and 2009 (Hyflux Ltd. , 2010), (Hyflux Ltd. , 2009) The company has been increasing in revenue in the year 2010 due to the major projects that are ongoing like their major plant in located in China that has been in halt for the past year due to the economic downturn. In addition the company also earns high revenue from the public and industrial sectors. Source: Hyflux Year end news release 2010 and 2009 (Hyflux Ltd. , 2009), (Hyflux Ltd. , 2010) ————————————————- External and Internal Analysis The SWOT analysis will be used in this report to understand the company’s internal strength and weaknesses and also its external opportunities and threats. Strength One of the root strengths that Hyflux has is their CEO, Ms Olivia Lum who started the business and its operation in the year 1989. Ms Olivia Lum set strategic directions and made effective and efficient decisions for the company which enabled them to grow a small sized company hiring only 3 staff with the capital of S$20,000 to one being of the â€Å"world’s fastest-growing technology driven water solutions company† (Hyflux Ltd. , NA). As a chief executive officer, they â€Å"develop and define the organization’s purpose, objectives, strategies, and long term plans† (Lussier, 2009). Ms Lum has accumulated several skills and knowledge in the hydro-chemical, chemistry, health and entrepreneurship which enable her to make effective and efficient strategic moves which leads to the company’s growth and success. Secondly, Hyflux hires 2,000 staff worldwide, in which a staff of â€Å"200 multidisciplinary membrane specialists, researchers and scientists â€Å"(Hyflux Ltd. , NA) in their innovative centers in Singapore. Employees are great assets to any company and add more value when they are skilled, motivated and diverse. Even if Hyflux has all the advance technologies and machines, it would be of no use (or unproductive) without a human working behind it. Hyflux employs â€Å"passionate, talented and ambitious people who are constantly willing to push the boundaries of the possible. † (Hyflux Ltd. , NA). Employees who take the initiative and are driven are likely to add value to the company and its production compared to an employee who is being â€Å"forced† to do their job. According to authors John Ivancevich and Lee Soo Hoon â€Å"In most organizations in Asia, effectiveness is measured by the balance of such complementary characteristics as reaching goals, employing the skills and abilities of employees efficiently and ensuring the influx and retention of well-trained and motivated employees. † (Ivancevich & Hoon, 2002). In addition, having a diverse workforce who are specialized to do their task contributes greatly on the company’s productivity through the creative ideas given from employees who are from different backgrounds and society. Moreover, Hyflux owns award winning water-machinery and advance technology which increases their popularity and the quality of their reputation. This encourages more customers to partner and/or purchase from Hyflux and also encourages more investors to invest in the company. Weaknesses High cost on employees has accumulated a significant increase in the operational cost of the company. in order to motivate employees, Hyfluxhas to train and financially reward their employees. However, the company is focused on employees too therefore they are not looking at it as a cost but as an investment instead. Moreover, the company is experiencing high cost in the operations itself and the fluctuation of exchange rates contributes to this problem notably and that includes high loan rates from banks as well. Opportunities In Singapore, water treatment facilities are encouraged by the government to supply the country with more of the natural resource and â€Å"The first of the water agreements with Malaysia, which expires in 2011, is not likely to be renewed† (Chowdhury, 2009) therefore the government is supporting the growth and operations of Hyflux. As a matter of fact, the company has PUB, Singapore’s national water agency, as a customer and has built 4 major water desalination plants under the management of PUB. PUB has become one the largest clients of Hyflux which reflects the company’s good and sustainable relationship with the government. In most countries that Hyflux go into, the government has always looked upon them with favor and a good relationship is formulated. For example, building the â€Å"world’s largest membrane-based seawater desalination project in Magtaa, Algeria.(Hyflux Ltd. , 2009). This is supported by the local government and allowed them to be financially supported by national banks in Algeria. Threats As mentioned on the latest news release by Hyflux, one of its threats is the unpredictable change in the currency markets (Hyflux Ltd. , 2010). An instability in the currency (especially in those wherein the company operates) could accumulate losses for the company. In some parts of the world, the supply, for example, could be more costly than expected in the budget due to unstable exchange rates. In addition, operational cost of the Hyflux Group as a whole can also be unpredictable because of fluctuations in the currency. One month’s operational budget and cost can be lower and the following month, expenses could just shoot up. Another threat affecting the global operation of the company is the â€Å"persistent high unemployment rate† (Hyflux Ltd. , 2010) in key markets in the US and EU. If this goes on, the economy of those markets will definitely be affected mainly on the interest rates. As more people are unemployed, GDP decreases, leading to a decrease in the prices of goods and services. This in return will affect the exchange rates and investors will be encouraged to invest in Hyflux, however in a smaller amount but then will be paid higher dividends and returns if the economy picks up. ————————————————- Object of concern for the company One of the main objectives and strategies of Ms Olivia Lum is to be able to achieve growth in the company by expanding and reaching to all its key markets globally. But in contrast, it is also a challenge for the CEO to sustain its rapid growth† (Smith, 2004).

Central Processing Unit and Memory Location

MICROPROCESSOR 8085 †¢ Reference Book: – Ramesh S. Goankar, â€Å"Microprocessor Architecture, Programming and Applications with 8085†, 5th Edition, Prentice Hall †¢ Week 1 – Basic Concept and Ideas about Microprocessor. †¢ Week 2 – Architecture of 8085 †¢ Week 3 – Addressing Modes and Instruction set of 8085 †¢ Week 4 – Interrupts of 8085 †¢ Week 5 onwards – Peripherals. Basic Concepts of Microprocessors †¢ Differences between: – Microcomputer – a computer with a microprocessor as its CPU. Includes memory, I/O etc. Microprocessor – silicon chip which includes ALU, register circuits & control circuits – Microcontroller – silicon chip which includes microprocessor, memory & I/O in a single package. What is a Microprocessor? †¢ The word comes from the combination micro and processor. – Processor means a device that processes whatever. In this context proces sor means a device that processes numbers, specifically binary numbers, 0’s and 1’s. †¢ To process means to manipulate. It is a general term that describes all manipulation. Again in this content, it means to perform certain operations on the numbers that depend on the microprocessor’s design.What about micro? †¢ Micro is a new addition. – In the late 1960’s, processors were built using discrete elements. †¢ These devices performed the required operation, but were too large and too slow. – In the early 1970’s the microchip was invented. All of the components that made up the processor were now placed on a single piece of silicon. The size became several thousand times smaller and the speed became several hundred times faster. The â€Å"Micro†Processor was born. Was there ever a â€Å"mini†processor? †¢ No. – It went directly from discrete elements to a single chip. However, omparing todayâ€⠄¢s microprocessors to the ones built in the early 1970’s you find an extreme increase in the amount of integration. †¢ So, What is a microprocessor? Definition of the Microprocessor The microprocessor is a programmable device that takes in numbers, performs on them arithmetic or logical operations according to the program stored in memory and then produces other numbers as a result. Definition (Contd. ) †¢ Lets expand each of the underlined words: – Programmable device: The microprocessor can perform different sets of operations on the data it receives depending on the sequence of instructions supplied in the given program.By changing the program, the microprocessor manipulates the data in different ways. – Instructions: Each microprocessor is designed to execute a specific group of operations. This group of operations is called an instruction set. This instruction set defines what the microprocessor can and cannot do. Definition (Contd. ) – Ta kes in: The data that the microprocessor manipulates must come from somewhere. †¢ It comes from what is called â€Å"input devices†. †¢ These are devices that bring data into the system from the outside world. †¢ These represent devices such as a keyboard, a mouse, switches, and the like.Definition (Contd. ) – Numbers: The microprocessor has a very narrow view on life. It only understands binary numbers. A binary digit is called a bit (which comes from binary digit). The microprocessor recognizes and processes a group of bits together. This group of bits is called a â€Å"word†. The number of bits in a Microprocessor’s word, is a measure of its â€Å"abilities†. Definition (Contd. ) – Words, Bytes, etc. †¢ The earliest microprocessor (the Intel 8088 and Motorola’s 6800) recognized 8-bit words. – They processed information 8-bits at a time. That’s why they are called â€Å"8-bit processors†.They can handle large numbers, but in order to process these numbers, they broke them into 8-bit pieces and processed each group of 8-bits separately. †¢ Later microprocessors (8086 and 68000) were designed with 16-bit words. – A group of 8-bits were referred to as a â€Å"half-word† or â€Å"byte†. – A group of 4 bits is called a â€Å"nibble†. – Also, 32 bit groups were given the name â€Å"long word†. †¢ Today, all processors manipulate at least 32 bits at a time and there exists microprocessors that can process 64, 80, 128 bits Definition (Contd. ) – Arithmetic and Logic Operations: Every microprocessor has arithmetic operations such as add and subtract as part of its instruction set. – Most microprocessors will have operations such as multiply and divide. – Some of the newer ones will have complex operations such as square root. †¢ In addition, microprocessors have logic operations as well. Such as AND, OR, XOR, shift left, shift right, etc. †¢ Again, the number and types of operations define the microprocessor’s instruction set and depends on the specific microprocessor. Definition (Contd. ) – Stored in memory : †¢ First, what is memory? – Memory is the location where information is kept while not in current use. Memory is a collection of storage devices. Usually, each storage device holds one bit. Also, in most kinds of memory, these storage devices are grouped into groups of 8. These 8 storage locations can only be accessed together. So, one can only read or write in terms of bytes to and form memory. – Memory is usually measured by the number of bytes it can hold. It is measured in Kilos, Megas and lately Gigas. A Kilo in computer language is 210 =1024. So, a KB (KiloByte) is 1024 bytes. Mega is 1024 Kilos and Giga is 1024 Mega. Definition (Contd. ) – Stored in memory: †¢ When a program is entered into a computer, it is st ored in memory.Then as the microprocessor starts to execute the instructions, it brings the instructions from memory one at a time. †¢ Memory is also used to hold the data. – The microprocessor reads (brings in) the data from memory when it needs it and writes (stores) the results into memory when it is done. Definition (Contd. ) – Produces: For the user to see the result of the execution of the program, the results must be presented in a human readable form. †¢ The results must be presented on an output device. †¢ This can be the monitor, a paper from the printer, a simple LED or many other forms. A Microprocessor-based systemFrom the above description, we can draw the following block diagram to represent a microprocessor-based system: Input Output Memory Inside The Microprocessor †¢ Internally, the microprocessor is made up of 3 main units. – The Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU) – The Control Unit. – An array of registers for holdi ng data while it is being manipulated. Organization of a microprocessorbased system †¢ Let’s expand the picture a bit. I/O Input / Output ALU Register Array System Bus Memory ROM RAM Control Memory †¢ Memory stores information such as instructions and data in binary format (0 and 1).It provides this information to the microprocessor whenever it is needed. †¢ Usually, there is a memory â€Å"sub-system† in a microprocessor-based system. This sub-system includes: – The registers inside the microprocessor – Read Only Memory (ROM) †¢ used to store information that does not change. – Random Access Memory (RAM) (also known as Read/Write Memory). †¢ used to store information supplied by the user. Such as programs and data. Memory Map and Addresses †¢ The memory map is a picture representation of the address range and shows where the different memory chips are located within the address range. 000 0000 EPROM 3FFF 4400 Address Range of EPROM Chip Address Range RAM 1 RAM 2 RAM 3 Address Range of 1st RAM Chip 5FFF 6000 Address Range of 2nd RAM Chip 8FFF 9000 A3FF A400 Address Range of 3rd RAM Chip RAM 4 F7FF FFFF Address Range of 4th RAM Chip Memory †¢ To execute a program: – the user enters its instructions in binary format into the memory. – The microprocessor then reads these instructions and whatever data is needed from memory, executes the instructions and places the results either in memory or produces it on an output device. The three cycle instruction execution model To execute a program, the microprocessor â€Å"reads† each instruction from memory, â€Å"interprets† it, then â€Å"executes† it. †¢ To use the right names for the cycles: – The microprocessor fetches each instruction, – decodes it, – Then executes it. †¢ This sequence is continued until all instructions are performed. Machine Language †¢ The number of bits tha t form the â€Å"word† of a microprocessor is fixed for that particular processor. – These bits define a maximum number of combinations. †¢ For example an 8-bit microprocessor can have at most 28 = 256 different combinations. However, in most microprocessors, not all of these combinations are used. – Certain patterns are chosen and assigned specific meanings. – Each of these patterns forms an instruction for the microprocessor. – The complete set of patterns makes up the microprocessor’s machine language. The 8085 Machine Language †¢ The 8085 (from Intel) is an 8-bit microprocessor. – The 8085 uses a total of 246 bit patterns to form its instruction set. – These 246 patterns represent only 74 instructions. †¢ The reason for the difference is that some (actually most) instructions have multiple different formats. Because it is very difficult to enter the bit patterns correctly, they are usually entered in hexadeci mal instead of binary. †¢ For example, the combination 0011 1100 which translates into â€Å"increment the number in the register called the accumulator†, is usually entered as 3C. Assembly Language †¢ Entering the instructions using hexadecimal is quite easier than entering the binary combinations. – However, it still is difficult to understand what a program written in hexadecimal does. – So, each company defines a symbolic code for the instructions. – These codes are called â€Å"mnemonics†. The mnemonic for each instruction is usually a group of letters that suggest the operation performed. Assembly Language †¢ Using the same example from before, – 00111100 translates to 3C in hexadecimal (OPCODE) – Its mnemonic is: â€Å"INR A†. – INR stands for â€Å"increment register† and A is short for accumulator. †¢ Another example is: 1000 0000, – Which translates to 80 in hexadecimal. â€⠀œ Its mnemonic is â€Å"ADD B†. – â€Å"Add register B to the accumulator and keep the result in the accumulator†. Assembly Language †¢ It is important to remember that a machine language and its associated assembly language are completely machine dependent. In other words, they are not transferable from one microprocessor to a different one. †¢ For example, Motorolla has an 8-bit microprocessor called the 6800. – The 8085 machine language is very different from that of the 6800. So is the assembly language. – A program written for the 8085 cannot be executed on the 6800 and vice versa. â€Å"Assembling† The Program †¢ How does assembly language get translated into machine language? – There are two ways: – 1st there is â€Å"hand assembly†. †¢ The programmer translates each assembly language instruction into its equivalent hexadecimal code (machine language).Then the hexadecimal code is entered into memory. – The other possibility is a program called an â€Å"assembler†, which does the translation automatically. 8085 Microprocessor Architecture †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ 8-bit general purpose  µp Capable of addressing 64 k of memory Has 40 pins Requires +5 v power supply Can operate with 3 MHz clock 8085 upward compatible Pins Power Supply: +5 V Frequency Generator is connected to those pins Input/Output/ Memory Read Write Multiplexed Address Data Bus Address latch Enable Address Bus †¢ System Bus – wires connecting memory & I/O to microprocessor – Address Bus Unidirectional †¢ Identifying peripheral or memory location – Data Bus †¢ Bidirectional †¢ Transferring data – Control Bus †¢ Synchronization signals †¢ Timing signals †¢ Control signal Architecture of Intel 8085 Microprocessor Intel 8085 Microprocessor †¢ Microprocessor consists of: – – – – – Control unit: control microprocessor operations. ALU: performs data processing function. Registers: provide storage internal to CPU. Interrupts Internal data bus The ALU †¢ In addition to the arithmetic & logic circuits, the ALU includes the accumulator, which is part of every arithmetic & logic operation. Also, the ALU includes a temporary register used for holding data temporarily during the execution of the operation. This temporary register is not accessible by the programmer. †¢ Registers – General Purpose Registers †¢ B, C, D, E, H & L (8 bit registers) †¢ Can be used singly †¢ Or can be used as 16 bit register pairs – BC, DE, HL †¢ H & L can be used as a data pointer (holds memory address) – Special Purpose Registers †¢ Accumulator (8 bit register) – Store 8 bit data – Store the result of an operation – Store 8 bit data during I/O transfer Accumulator Flags B C D E H L Program Counter Stack Pointer Address 6 8 Data †¢ Flag Register – 8 bit register – shows the status of the microprocessor before/after an operation – S (sign flag), Z (zero flag), AC (auxillary carry flag), P (parity flag) & CY (carry flag) D7 S D6 Z D5 X D4 AC D3 X D2 P D1 X D0 CY – Sign Flag †¢ Used for indicating the sign of the data in the accumulator †¢ The sign flag is set if negative (1 – negative) †¢ The sign flag is reset if positive (0 –positive) †¢ Zero Flag – Is set if result obtained after an operation is 0 – Is set following an increment or decrement operation of that register 10110011 + 01001101 ————–1 00000000 †¢ Carry Flag Is set if there is a carry or borrow from arithmetic operation 1011 0101 + 0110 1100 ————–Carry 1 0010 0001 1011 0101 – 1100 1100 ————–Borrow 1 1110 1001 †¢ Auxillary Carry Flag – Is set if there is a carry out of bit 3 †¢ Parity Flag – Is set if parity is even – Is cleared if parity is odd The Internal Architecture †¢ We have already discussed the general purpose registers, the Accumulator, and the flags. †¢ The Program Counter (PC) – This is a register that is used to control the sequencing of the execution of instructions. – This register always holds the address of the next instruction. Since it holds an address, it must be 16 bits wide. The Internal Architecture †¢ The Stack pointer – The stack pointer is also a 16-bit register that is used to point into memory. – The memory this register points to is a special area called the stack. – The stack is an area of memory used to hold data that will be retreived soon. – The stack is usually accessed in a Last In First Out (LIFO) fashion. Non Programmable Registers †¢ Instruction Register & Decoder – Inst ruction is stored in IR after fetched by processor – Decoder decodes instruction in IR Internal Clock generator – 3. 125 MHz internally – 6. 5 MHz externally The Address and Data Busses †¢ The address bus has 8 signal lines A8 – A15 which are unidirectional. †¢ The other 8 address bits are multiplexed (time shared) with the 8 data bits. – So, the bits AD0 – AD7 are bi-directional and serve as A0 – A7 and D0 – D7 at the same time. †¢ During the execution of the instruction, these lines carry the address bits during the early part, then during the late parts of the execution, they carry the 8 data bits. – In order to separate the address from the data, we can use a latch to save the value before the function of the bits changes. Demultiplexing AD7-AD0 From the above description, it becomes obvious that the AD7– AD0 lines are serving a dual purpose and that they need to be demultiplexed to get all the information. – The high order bits of the address remain on the bus for three clock periods. However, the low order bits remain for only one clock period and they would be lost if they are not saved externally. Also, notice that the low order bits of the address disappear when they are needed most. – To make sure we have the entire address for the full three clock cycles, we will use an external latch to save the value of AD7– AD0 when it is carrying the address bits.We use the ALE signal to enable this latch. Demultiplexing AD7-AD0 8085 A15-A8 ALE AD7-AD0 Latch A7- A0 D7- D0 – Given that ALE operates as a pulse during T1, we will be able to latch the address. Then when ALE goes low, the address is saved and the AD7– AD0 lines can be used for their purpose as the bi-directional data lines. Demultiplexing the Bus AD7 – AD0 †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ The high order address is placed on the address bus and hold for 3 clk periods, The low o rder address is lost after the first clk period, this address needs to be hold however we need to use latch The address AD7 – AD0 is connected as inputs to the latch 74LS373.The ALE signal is connected to the enable (G) pin of the latch and the OC – Output control – of the latch is grounded The Overall Picture †¢ Putting all of the concepts together, we get: A15- A10 Chip Selection Circuit 8085 A15-A8 ALE AD7-AD0 Latch CS A9- A0 A7- A0 1K Byte Memory Chip WR RD IO/M D7- D0 RD WR Introduction to 8085 Instructions The 8085 Instructions – Since the 8085 is an 8-bit device it can have up to 28 (256) instructions. †¢ However, the 8085 only uses 246 combinations that represent a total of 74 instructions. – Most of the instructions have more than one format. These instructions can be grouped into five different groups: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Data Transfer Operations Arithmetic Operations Logic Operations Branch Operations Machin e Control Operations Instruction and Data Formats †¢ Each instruction has two parts. – The first part is the task or operation to be performed. †¢ This part is called the â€Å"opcode† (operation code). – The second part is the data to be operated on †¢ Called the â€Å"operand†. Data Transfer Operations – These operations simply COPY the data from the source to the destination. – MOV, MVI, LDA, and STA – They transfer: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Data between registers.Data Byte to a register or memory location. Data between a memory location and a register. Data between an IO Device and the accumulator. – The data in the source is not changed. The LXI instruction †¢ The 8085 provides an instruction to place the 16-bit data into the register pair in one step. †¢ LXI Rp, (Load eXtended Immediate) – The instruction LXI B 4000H will place the 16-bit number 4000 into the register pair B, C. â₠¬ ¢ The upper two digits are placed in the 1st register of the pair and the lower two digits in the 2nd . B 40 00 C LXI B 40 00H The Memory â€Å"Register† Most of the instructions of the 8085 can use a memory location in place of a register. – The memory location will become the â€Å"memory† register M. †¢ MOV M B – copy the data from register B into a memory location. – Which memory location? †¢ The memory location is identified by the contents of the HL register pair. – The 16-bit contents of the HL register pair are treated as a 16-bit address and used to identify the memory location. Using the Other Register Pairs – There is also an instruction for moving data from memory to the accumulator without disturbing the contents of the H and L register. †¢ LDAX Rp (LoaD Accumulator eXtended) Copy the 8-bit contents of the memory location identified by the Rp register pair into the Accumulator. – This instruction o nly uses the BC or DE pair. – It does not accept the HL pair. Indirect Addressing Mode †¢ Using data in memory directly (without loading first into a Microprocessor’s register) is called Indirect Addressing. †¢ Indirect addressing uses the data in a register pair as a 16-bit address to identify the memory location being accessed. – The HL register pair is always used in conjunction with the memory register â€Å"M†. – The BC and DE register pairs can be used to load data into the Accumultor using indirect addressing.Arithmetic Operations – Addition (ADD, ADI): – Any 8-bit number. – The contents of a register. – The contents of a memory location. †¢ Can be added to the contents of the accumulator and the result is stored in the accumulator. – Subtraction (SUB, SUI): – Any 8-bit number – The contents of a register – The contents of a memory location †¢ Can be subtracted from the contents of the accumulator. The result is stored in the accumulator. Arithmetic Operations Related to Memory †¢ These instructions perform an arithmetic operation using the contents of a memory location while they are still in memory. ADD – SUB – INR M M M / DCR M †¢ Add the contents of M to the Accumulator †¢ Sub the contents of M from the Accumulator †¢ Increment/decrement the contents of the memory location in place. – All of these use the contents of the HL register pair to identify the memory location being used. Arithmetic Operations – Increment (INR) and Decrement (DCR): †¢ The 8-bit contents of any memory location or any register can be directly incremented or decremented by 1. †¢ No need to disturb the contents of the accumulator. Manipulating Addresses †¢ Now that we have a 16-bit address in a register pair, how do we manipulate it? It is possible to manipulate a 16-bit address stored in a register pair as one entity using some special instructions. †¢ INX Rp †¢ DCX Rp (Increment the 16-bit number in the register pair) (Decrement the 16-bit number in the register pair) – The register pair is incremented or decremented as one entity. No need to worry about a carry from the lower 8-bits to the upper. It is taken care of automatically. Logic Operations †¢ These instructions perform logic operations on the contents of the accumulator. – ANA, ANI, ORA, ORI, XRA and XRI †¢ Source: Accumulator and – An 8-bit number – The contents of a register – The contents of a memory location Destination: Accumulator ANA R/M ANI # ORA ORI XRA XRI R/M # R/M # AND Accumulator With Reg/Mem AND Accumulator With an 8-bit number OR Accumulator With Reg/Mem OR Accumulator With an 8-bit number XOR Accumulator With Reg/Mem XOR Accumulator With an 8-bit number Logic Operations – Complement: †¢ 1’s complement of the contents of the accumulato r. CMA No operand Additional Logic Operations †¢ Rotate – Rotate the contents of the accumulator one position to the left or right. – RLC – RAL – RRC – RAR Rotate the accumulator left. Bit 7 goes to bit 0 AND the Carry flag. Rotate the accumulator left through the carry.Bit 7 goes to the carry and carry goes to bit 0. Rotate the accumulator right. Bit 0 goes to bit 7 AND the Carry flag. Rotate the accumulator right through the carry. Bit 0 goes to the carry and carry goes to bit 7. RLC vs. RLA Carry Flag †¢ RLC 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Accumulator Carry Flag †¢ RAL 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Accumulator Logical Operations †¢ Compare †¢ Compare the contents of a register or memory location with the contents of the accumulator. – CMP R/M Compare the contents of the register or memory location to the contents of the accumulator. Compare the 8-bit number to the contents of the accumulator. CPI # †¢ The compare instruction sets the flag s (Z, Cy, and S). †¢ The compare is done using an internal subtraction that does not change the contents of the accumulator. A – (R / M / #) Branch Operations †¢ Two types: – Unconditional branch. †¢ Go to a new location no matter what. – Conditional branch. †¢ Go to a new location if the condition is true. Unconditional Branch – JMP Address †¢ Jump to the address specified (Go to). – CALL Address †¢ Jump to the address specified but treat it as a subroutine. – RET †¢ Return from a subroutine. – The addresses supplied to all branch operations must be 16-bits.Conditional Branch – Go to new location if a specified condition is met. †¢ JZ Address (Jump on Zero) – Go to address specified if the Zero flag is set. †¢ JNZ Address (Jump on NOT Zero) – Go to address specified if the Zero flag is not set. †¢ JC Address (Jump on Carry) – Go to the address specified if the Carry flag is set. †¢ JNC Address (Jump on No Carry) – Go to the address specified if the Carry flag is not set. †¢ JP †¢ JM Address (Jump on Plus) Address (Jump on Minus) – Go to the address specified if the Sign flag is not set – Go to the address specified if the Sign flag is set.Machine Control – HLT †¢ Stop executing the program. – NOP †¢ No operation †¢ Exactly as it says, do nothing. †¢ Usually used for delay or to replace instructions during debugging. Operand Types †¢ There are different ways for specifying the operand: – There may not be an operand (implied operand) †¢ CMA – The operand may be an 8-bit number (immediate data) †¢ ADI 4FH – The operand may be an internal register (register) †¢ SUB B – The operand may be a 16-bit address (memory address) †¢ LDA 4000H Instruction Size †¢ Depending on the operand type, the instruction may have diff erent sizes.It will occupy a different number of memory bytes. – Typically, all instructions occupy one byte only. – The exception is any instruction that contains immediate data or a memory address. †¢ Instructions that include immediate data use two bytes. – One for the opcode and the other for the 8-bit data. †¢ Instructions that include a memory address occupy three bytes. – One for the opcode, and the other two for the 16-bit address. Instruction with Immediate Date †¢ Operation: Load an 8-bit number into the accumulator. – MVI A, 32 †¢ Operation: MVI A †¢ Operand: The number 32 †¢ Binary Code: 0011 1110 3E 1st byte. 011 0010 32 2nd byte. Instruction with a Memory Address †¢ Operation: go to address 2085. – Instruction: JMP 2085 †¢ Opcode: JMP †¢ Operand: 2085 †¢ Binary code: 1100 0011 C3 1000 0101 85 0010 0000 20 1st byte. 2nd byte 3rd byte Addressing Modes †¢ The microprocessor ha s different ways of specifying the data for the instruction. These are called â€Å"addressing modes†. †¢ The 8085 has four addressing modes: – – – – Implied Immediate Direct Indirect CMA MVI B, 45 LDA 4000 LDAX B †¢ Load the accumulator with the contents of the memory location whose address is stored in the register pair BC). Data Formats In an 8-bit microprocessor, data can be represented in one of four formats: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ ASCII BCD Signed Integer Unsigned Integer. – It is important to recognize that the microprocessor deals with 0’s and 1’s. †¢ It deals with values as strings of bits. †¢ It is the job of the user to add a meaning to these strings. Data Formats †¢ Assume the accumulator contains the following value: 0100 0001. – There are four ways of reading this value: †¢ It is an unsigned integer expressed in binary, the equivalent decimal number would be 65. †¢ It is a number expressed in BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) format. That would make it, 41. It is an ASCII representation of a letter. That would make it the letter A. †¢ It is a string of 0’s and 1’s where the 0th and the 6th bits are set to 1 while all other bits are set to 0. ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. Counters & Time Delays Counters †¢ A loop counter is set up by loading a register with a certain value †¢ Then using the DCR (to decrement) and INR (to increment) the contents of the register are updated. †¢ A loop is set up with a conditional jump instruction that loops back or not depending on whether the count has reached the termination count.Counters †¢ The operation of a loop counter can be described using the following flowchart. Initialize Body of loop Update the count No Is this Final Count? Yes Sample ALP for implementing a loop Using DCR instruction MVI C, 15H LOOP DCR C JNZ LOOP Using a Regist er Pair as a Loop Counter †¢ Using a single register, one can repeat a loop for a maximum count of 255 times. †¢ It is possible to increase this count by using a register pair for the loop counter instead of the single register. – A minor problem arises in how to test for the final count since DCX and INX do not modify the flags. However, if the loop is looking for when the count becomes zero, we can use a small trick by ORing the two registers in the pair and then checking the zero flag. Using a Register Pair as a Loop Counter †¢ The following is an example of a loop set up with a register pair as the loop counter. LXI B, 1000H LOOP DCX B MOV A, C ORA B JNZ LOOP Delays †¢ It was shown in Chapter 2 that each instruction passes through different combinations of Fetch, Memory Read, and Memory Write cycles. †¢ Knowing the combinations of cycles, one can calculate how long such an instruction would require to complete. The table in Appendix F of the book contains a column with the title B/M/T. – B for Number of Bytes – M for Number of Machine Cycles – T for Number of T-State. Delays †¢ Knowing how many T-States an instruction requires, and keeping in mind that a T-State is one clock cycle long, we can calculate the time using the following formula: Delay = No. of T-States / Frequency †¢ For example a â€Å"MVI† instruction uses 7 T-States. Therefore, if the Microprocessor is running at 2 MHz, the instruction would require 3. 5  µSeconds to complete. Delay loops †¢ We can use a loop to produce a certain amount of time delay in a program. The following is an example of a delay loop: MVI C, FFH LOOP DCR C JNZ LOOP 7 T-States 4 T-States 10 T-States †¢ The first instruction initializes the loop counter and is executed only once requiring only 7 T-States. †¢ The following two instructions form a loop that requires 14 T-States to execute and is repeated 255 times until C becomes 0. Del ay Loops (Contd. ) †¢ We need to keep in mind though that in the last iteration of the loop, the JNZ instruction will fail and require only 7 T-States rather than the 10. †¢ Therefore, we must deduct 3 T-States from the total delay to get an accurate delay calculation. To calculate the delay, we use the following formula: Tdelay = TO + TL – Tdelay = total delay – TO = delay outside the loop – TL = delay of the loop †¢ TO is the sum of all delays outside the loop. Delay Loops (Contd. ) †¢ Using these formulas, we can calculate the time delay for the previous example: †¢ TO = 7 T-States – Delay of the MVI instruction †¢ TL = (14 X 255) – 3 = 3567 T-States – 14 T-States for the 2 instructions repeated 255 times (FF16 = 25510) reduced by the 3 T-States for the final JNZ. Using a Register Pair as a Loop Counter †¢ Using a single register, one can repeat a loop for a maximum count of 255 times. It is possible to increase this count by using a register pair for the loop counter instead of the single register. – A minor problem arises in how to test for the final count since DCX and INX do not modify the flags. – However, if the loop is looking for when the count becomes zero, we can use a small trick by ORing the two registers in the pair and then checking the zero flag. Using a Register Pair as a Loop Counter †¢ The following is an example of a delay loop set up with a register pair as the loop counter. LXI B, 1000H LOOP DCX B MOV A, C ORA B JNZ LOOP 10 T-States 6 T-States 4 T-States 4 T-States 10 T-StatesUsing a Register Pair as a Loop Counter †¢ Using the same formula from before, we can calculate: †¢ TO = 10 T-States – The delay for the LXI instruction †¢ TL = (24 X 4096) – 3 = 98301 T- States – 24 T-States for the 4 instructions in the loop repeated 4096 times (100016 = 409610) reduced by the 3 TStates for the JNZ in the last iterat ion. Nested Loops †¢ Nested loops can be easily setup in Assembly language by using two registers for the two loop counters and updating the right register in the right loop. – In the figure, the body of loop2 can be before or after loop1.Initialize loop 2 Body of loop 2 Initialize loop 1 Body of loop 1 Update the count1 No Is this Final Count? Yes Update the count 2 No Is this Final Count? Yes Nested Loops for Delay †¢ Instead (or in conjunction with) Register Pairs, a nested loop structure can be used to increase the total delay produced. MVI B, 10H LOOP2 MVI C, FFH LOOP1 DCR C JNZ LOOP1 DCR B JNZ LOOP2 7 T-States 7 T-States 4 T-States 10 T-States 4 T-States 10 T-States Delay Calculation of Nested Loops †¢ The calculation remains the same except that it the formula must be applied recursively to each loop. Start with the inner loop, then plug that delay in the calculation of the outer loop. †¢ Delay of inner loop – TO1 = 7 T-States †¢ MVI C, FFH instruction – TL1 = (255 X 14) – 3 = 3567 T-States †¢ 14 T-States for the DCR C and JNZ instructions repeated 255 Delay Calculation of Nested Loops †¢ Delay of outer loop – TO2 = 7 T-States †¢ MVI B, 10H instruction – TL1 = (16 X (14 + 3574)) – 3 = 57405 T-States †¢ 14 T-States for the DCR B and JNZ instructions and 3574 T-States for loop1 repeated 16 times (1016 = 1610) minus 3 for the final JNZ. – TDelay = 7 + 57405 = 57412 T-States †¢ Total Delay – TDelay = 57412 X 0. 5  µSec = 28. 06 mSec Increasing the delay †¢ The delay can be further increased by using register pairs for each of the loop counters in the nested loops setup. †¢ It can also be increased by adding dummy instructions (like NOP) in the body of the loop. Timing Diagram Representation of Various Control signals generated during Execution of an Instruction. Following Buses and Control Signals must be shown in a Timing Diagram: â € ¢Higher Order Address Bus. †¢Lower Address/Data bus †¢ALE †¢RD †¢WR †¢IO/M Timing Diagram Instruction: A000h MOV A,B Corresponding Coding: A000h 78 Timing Diagram Instruction: A000h MOV A,B Corresponding Coding: A000h 78OFC 8085 Memory Timing Diagram Instruction: A000h MOV A,B 00h T1 T2 T3 T4 A0h A15- A8 (Higher Order Address bus) Corresponding Coding: A000h 78 78h ALE RD OFC WR 8085 Memory IO/M Op-code fetch Cycle Timing Diagram Instruction: A000h MVI A,45h Corresponding Coding: A000h A001h 3E 45 Timing Diagram Instruction: A000h MVI A,45h OFC MEMR Corresponding Coding: A000h A001h 3E 45 8085 Memory Timing Diagram T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 A0h A0h A15- A8 (Higher Order Address bus) 00h 3Eh 01h 45h DA7-DA0 (Lower order address/data Bus) Instruction: A000h MVI A,45h Corresponding Coding: A000h A001h 3E 45 WR RD ALEIO/M Op-Code Fetch Cycle Memory Read Cycle Timing Diagram Instruction: A000h LXI A,FO45h Corresponding Coding: A000h A001h A002h 21 45 F0 Timing Dia gram Instruction: A000h LXI A,FO45h OFC MEMR MEMR Corresponding Coding: A000h A001h A002h 21 45 F0 8085 Memory Timing Diagram Op-Code Fetch Cycle Memory Read Cycle Memory Read Cycle T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 A0h A0h A0h A15- A8 (Higher Order Address bus) 00h 21h 01h 45h 02h F0h DA7-DA0 (Lower order address/data Bus) ALE RD WR IO/M Timing Diagram Instruction: A000h MOV A,M Corresponding Coding: A000h 7E Timing Diagram Instruction: A000h MOV A,MOFC MEMR Corresponding Coding: A000h 7E 8085 Memory Timing Diagram T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 A0h Content Of Reg H A15- A8 (Higher Order Address bus) Instruction: A000h MOV A,M Corresponding Coding: A000h 7E 00h 7Eh L Reg Content Of M DA7-DA0 (Lower order address/data Bus) ALE RD WR IO/M Op-Code Fetch Cycle Memory Read Cycle Timing Diagram Instruction: A000h MOV M,A Corresponding Coding: A000h 77 Timing Diagram Instruction: A000h MOV M,A OFC MEMW Corresponding Coding: A000h 77 8085 Memory Timing Diagram T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 A0h Content Of Reg H A15- A8 (Higher Order Address bus)Instruction: A000h MOV M,A Corresponding Coding: A000h 77 00h 7Eh L Reg Content of Reg A DA7-DA0 (Lower order address/data Bus) ALE RD WR IO/M Op-Code Fetch Cycle Memory Write Cycle Chapter 9 Stack and Subroutines The Stack †¢ The stack is an area of memory identified by the programmer for temporary storage of information. †¢ The stack is a LIFO structure. – Last In First Out. †¢ The stack normally grows backwards into memory. – In other words, the programmer defines the bottom of the stack and the stack grows up into reducing address range. The Stack grows backwards into memory Memory Bottom of the Stack The Stack Given that the stack grows backwards into memory, it is customary to place the bottom of the stack at the end of memory to keep it as far away from user programs as possible. †¢ In the 8085, the stack is defined by setting the SP (Stack Pointer) register. LXI SP, FFFFH †¢ This sets the Stack Pointer to location FFFFH (end of memory for the 8085). Saving Information on the Stack †¢ Information is saved on the stack by PUSHing it on. – It is retrieved from the stack by POPing it off. †¢ The 8085 provides two instructions: PUSH and POP for storing information on the stack and retrieving it back. – Both PUSH and POP work with register pairs ONLY.The PUSH Instruction †¢ PUSH B – Decrement SP – Copy the contents of register B to the memory location pointed to by SP – Decrement BSP C F3 12 – Copy the contents of register C to the memory location pointed to by SP F3 FFFB FFFC FFFD FFFE FFFF 12 SP The POP Instruction †¢ POP D – Copy the contents of the memory location pointed to by the SP to register E – Increment SP – Copy the contents of the memory location D E F3 12 pointed to by the SP to register D – Increment SP F3 SP FFFB FFFC FFFD FFFE FFFF 12 Operation of the Stack †¢ During pushing, the stack operates in a â€Å"decrement then store† style. The stack pointer is decremented first, then the information is placed on the stack. †¢ During poping, the stack operates in a â€Å"use then increment† style. – The information is retrieved from the top of the the stack and then the pointer is incremented. †¢ The SP pointer always points to â€Å"the top of the stack†. LIFO †¢ The order of PUSHs and POPs must be opposite of each other in order to retrieve information back into its original location. PUSH B PUSH D †¦ POP D POP B The PSW Register Pair †¢ The 8085 recognizes one additional register pair called the PSW (Program Status Word). This register pair is made up of the Accumulator and the Flags registers. †¢ It is possible to push the PSW onto the stack, do whatever operations are needed, then POP it off of the stack. – The result is that the contents of the Accumulator and the status of the Flags are ret urned to what they were before the operations were executed. Subroutines †¢ A subroutine is a group of instructions that will be used repeatedly in different locations of the program. – Rather than repeat the same instructions several times, they can be grouped into a subroutine that is called from the different locations. In Assembly language, a subroutine can exist anywhere in the code. – However, it is customary to place subroutines separately from the main program. Subroutines †¢ The 8085 has two instructions for dealing with subroutines. – The CALL instruction is used to redirect program execution to the subroutine. – The RTE insutruction is used to return the execution to the calling routine. The CALL Instruction †¢ CALL 4000H – Push the address of the instruction immediately following the CALL onto the stack 2000 CALL 4000 2003 counter – Load the program PC 2 0 0 3with the 16-bit address supplied with the CALL instructi on. FFFB FFFC FFFD FFFE FFFF 3 20 SP The RTE Instruction †¢ RTE – Retrieve the return address from the top of the stack – Load the program counter with the return address. 2003 PC 4014 4015 †¦ RTE FFFB FFFC FFFD FFFE FFFF 03 20 SP Cautions †¢ The CALL instruction places the return address at the two memory locations immediately before where the Stack Pointer is pointing. – You must set the SP correctly BEFORE using the CALL instruction. †¢ The RTE instruction takes the contents of the two memory locations at the top of the stack and uses these as the return address. – Do not modify the stack pointer in a subroutine. You will loose the return address.Passing Data to a Subroutine †¢ In Assembly Language data is passed to a subroutine through registers. – The data is stored in one of the registers by the calling program and the subroutine uses the value from the register. †¢ The other possibility is to use agreed upon mem ory locations. – The calling program stores the data in the memory location and the subroutine retrieves the data from the location and uses it. Call by Reference and Call by Value †¢ If the subroutine performs operations on the contents of the registers, then these modifications will be transferred back to the calling program upon returning from a subroutine. Call by reference †¢ If this is not desired, the subroutine should PUSH all the registers it needs on the stack on entry and POP them on return. – The original values are restored before execution returns to the calling program. Cautions with PUSH and POP †¢ PUSH and POP should be used in opposite order. †¢ There has to be as many POP’s as there are PUSH’s. – If not, the RET statement will pick up the wrong information from the top of the stack and the program will fail. †¢ It is not advisable to place PUSH or POP inside a loop. Conditional CALL and RTE Instructions à ¢â‚¬ ¢ The 8085 supports conditional CALL and conditional RTE instructions. The same conditions used with conditional JUMP instructions can be used. – – – – – CC, call subroutine if Carry flag is set. CNC, call subroutine if Carry flag is not set RC, return from subroutine if Carry flag is set RNC, return from subroutine if Carry flag is not set Etc. A Proper Subroutine †¢ According to Software Engineering practices, a proper subroutine: – Is only entered with a CALL and exited with an RTE – Has a single entry point †¢ Do not use a CALL statement to jump into different points of the same subroutine. – Has a single exit point †¢ There should be one return statement from any subroutine. Following these rules, there should not be any confusion with PUSH and POP usage. The Design and Operation of Memory Memory in a microprocessor system is where information (data and instructions) is kept. It can be classified into t wo main types: ? ? Main memory (RAM and ROM) Storage memory (Disks , CD ROMs, etc. ) The simple view of RAM is that it is made up of registers that are made up of flip-flops (or memory elements). ? ROM on the other hand uses diodes instead of the flip-flops to permanently hold the information. The number of flip-flops in a â€Å"memory register† determines the size of the memory word. Accessing Information in Memory For the microprocessor to access (Read or Write) information in memory (RAM or ROM), it needs to do the following: Select the right memory chip (using part of the address bus). Identify the memory location (using the rest of the address bus). Access the data (using the data bus). 2 Tri-State Buffers An important circuit element that is used extensively in memory. This buffer is a logic circuit that has three states: Logic 0, logic1, and high impedance. When this circuit is in high impedance mode it looks as if it is disconnected from the output completely.The Outp ut is Low The Output is High High Impedance 3 The Tri-State Buffer This circuit has two inputs and one output. The first input behaves like the normal input for the circuit. The second input is an â€Å"enable†. ? ? If it is set high, the output follows the proper circuit behavior. If it is set low, the output looks like a wire connected to nothing. Output Input OR Input Output Enable Enable 4 The Basic Memory Element The basic memory element is similar to a D latch. This latch has an input where the data comes in. It has an enable input and an output on which data comes out. Data Input D Data Output QEnable EN 5 The Basic Memory Element However, this is not safe. Data is always present on the input and the output is always set to the contents of the latch. To avoid this, tri-state buffers are added at the input and output of the latch. Data Input D Data Output Q RD Enable EN WR 6 The Basic Memory Element The WR signal controls the input buffer. The bar over WR means that thi s is an active low signal. So, if WR is 0 the input data reaches the latch input. If WR is 1 the input of the latch looks like a wire connected to nothing. The RD signal controls the output in a similar manner. A Memory â€Å"Register† If we take four of these latches and connect them together, we would have a 4-bit memory register I0 WR I1 I2 I3 D Q EN EN RD D Q EN D Q EN D Q EN O0 O1 O2 O3 8 A group of memory registers D0 o D1 o o D2 o D3 WR D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q D Q D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q Expanding on this scheme to add more memory registers we get the diagram to the right. EN D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q o o o o RD D0 D1 D2 9 D3 Externally Initiated Operations External devices can initiate (start) one of the 4 following operations: Reset ?All operations are stopped and the program counter is reset to 0000. The microprocessor’s operations are interrupted and the microprocessor executes what is called a â€Å"service routine†. Th is routine â€Å"handles† the interrupt, (perform the necessary operations). Then the microprocessor returns to its previous operations and continues. Interrupt ? ? 10 A group of Memory Registers If we represent each memory location (Register) as a block we get the following I0 I1 I2 I3 WR EN0 EN1 EN2 EN3 RD O0 Input Buffers Memory Reg. 0 Memory Reg. 1 Memory Reg. 2 Memory Reg. 3 Output Buffers O1 O2 O3 11The Design of a Memory Chip Using the RD and WR controls we can determine the direction of flow either into or out of memory. Then using the appropriate Enable input we enable an individual memory register. What we have just designed is a memory with 4 locations and each location has 4 elements (bits). This memory would be called 4 X 4 [Number of location X number of bits per location]. 12 The Enable Inputs How do we produce these enable line? Since we can never have more than one of these enables active at the same time, we can have them encoded to reduce the number of line s coming into the chip.These encoded lines are the address lines for memory. 13 The Design of a Memory Chip So, the previous diagram would now look like the following: I I I I 0 1 2 3 WR A d d r e s s D e c o d e r Input Buffers Memory Reg. 0 Memory Reg. 1 Memory Reg. 2 Memory Reg. 3 Output Buffers A1 A0 RD O0 O1 O2 O3 14 The Design of a Memory Chip Since we have tri-state buffers on both the inputs and outputs of the flip flops, we can actually use one set of pins only. Input Buffers WR A1 A0 A D The chip Memory Reg. now look likeDthis: would 0 d e 0 D0 A1 A0 D1 D2 D3 d r e s s c o d e r Memory Reg. 1 Memory Reg. 2 Memory Reg. Output Buffers D1 D2 D3 RD RD WR 15 The steps of writing into Memory What happens when the programmer issues the STA instruction? The microprocessor would turn on the WR control (WR = 0) and turn off the RD control (RD = 1). The address is applied to the address decoder which generates a single Enable signal to turn on only one of the memory registers. The da ta is then applied on the data lines and it is stored into the enabled register. 16 Dimensions of Memory Memory is usually measured by two numbers: its length and its width (Length X Width). ? ? The length is the total number of locations.The width is the number of bits in each location. The length (total number of locations) is a function of the number of address lines. # of memory locations = 2( # of address lines) 210 = 1024 locations (1K) ? So, a memory chip with 10 address lines would have Looking at it from the other side, a memory chip with 4K locations would need ? Log2 4096=12 address lines 17 The 8085 and Memory The 8085 has 16 address lines. That means it can address 216 = 64K memory locations. Then it will need 1 memory chip with 64 k locations, or 2 chips with 32 K in each, or 4 with 16 K each or 16 of the 4 K chips, etc. ow would we use these address lines to control the multiple chips? 18 Chip Select Usually, each memory chip has a CS (Chip Select) input. The chip wil l only work if an active signal is applied on that input. To allow the use of multiple chips in the make up of memory, we need to use a number of the address lines for the purpose of â€Å"chip selection†. These address lines are decoded to generate the 2n necessary CS inputs for the memory chips to be used. 19 Chip Selection Example Assume that we need to build a memory system made up of 4 of the 4 X 4 memory chips we designed earlier.We will need to use 2 inputs and a decoder to identify which chip will be used at what time. The resulting design would now look like the one on the following slide. 20 Chip Selection Example RD WR D0 D1 RD WR A0 A1 CS RD WR A0 A1 CS RD WR A0 A1 CS RD WR A0 A1 CS A0 A1 A2 A3 2 X4 Decoder 21 Memory Map and Addresses The memory map is a picture representation of the address range and shows where the different memory chips are located within the address range. 0000 0000 EPROM 3FFF 4400 Address Range of EPROM Chip Address Range RAM 1 RAM 2 RAM 3 Ad dress Range of 1st RAM Chip 5FFF 6000 Address Range of 2nd RAM Chip FFF 9000 A3FF A400 Address Range of 3rd RAM Chip RAM 4 F7FF FFFF Address Range of 4th RAM Chip 22 Address Range of a Memory Chip The address range of a particular chip is the list of all addresses that are mapped to the chip. An example for the address range and its relationship to the memory chips would be the Post Office Boxes in the post office. †¢ Each box has its unique number that is assigned sequentially. (memory locations) †¢ The boxes are grouped into groups. (memory chips) †¢ The first box in a group has the number immediately after the last box in the previous group. 23 Address Range of a Memory ChipThe above example can be modified slightly to make it closer to our discussion on memory. †¢ Let’s say that this post office has only 1000 boxes. †¢ Let’s also say that these are grouped into 10 groups of 100 boxes each. Boxes 0000 to 0099 are in group 0, boxes 0100 to 01 99 are in group 1 and so on. We can look at the box number as if it is made up of two pieces: †¢ The group number and the box’s index within the group. †¢ So, box number 436 is the 36th box in the 4th group. The upper digit of the box number identifies the group and the lower two digits identify the box within the group. 24The 8085 and Address Ranges The 8085 has 16 address lines. So, it can address a total of 64K memory locations. If we use memory chips with 1K locations each, then we will need 64 such chips. The 1K memory chip needs 10 address lines to uniquely identify the 1K locations. (log21024 = 10) That leaves 6 address lines which is the exact number needed for selecting between the 64 different chips (log264 = 6). 25 The 8085 and Address Ranges Now, we can break up the 16-bit address of the 8085 into two pieces: A15 A14 A13 A12 A11 A10 A9 A8 A7 A6 A5 A4 A3 A2 A1 A0 Chip Selection Location Selection within the ChipDepending on the combination on the address lines A15 – A10 , the address range of the specified chip is determined. 26 Chip Select Example A chip that uses the combination A15 – A10 = 001000 would have addresses that range from 2000H to 23FFH. Keep in mind that the 10 address lines on the chip gives a range of 00 0000 0000 to 11 1111 1111 or 000H to 3FFH for each of the chips. The memory chip in this example would require the following circuit on its chip select input: A 10 A 11 A 12 A 13 A 14 A 15 CS 27 Chip Select Example If we change the above combination to the following: A 10 A 11 A 12 A 13 A 14 A 15 CSNow the chip would have addresses ranging from: 2400 to 27FF. Changing the combination of the address bits connected to the chip select changes the address range for the memory chip. 28 Chip Select Example To illustrate this with a picture: ? ? in the first case, the memory chip occupies the piece of the memory map identified as before. In the second case, it occupies the piece identified as after. Before Af ter 0000 2000 23FF 2400 27FF 0000 FFFF FFFF 29 High-Order vs. Low-Order Address Lines The address lines from a microprocessor can be classified into two types: High-Order ? Low-Order ?

A Study on Accounting Software

Every business needs to keep a track of its expenses and profits as well as payments. But, since every business is unique their needs within accounting software also differs. Before the new millennium, most small businesses handled their accounts using paper based accounting systems which worked fine. The introduction of Goods and Service Taxes changed the lookout of the businesses that earlier used to keep their accounting through paper only. Most businesses shifted to accounting software’s, and one of the most popular ones online is the Intuit Quickbooks. The software that helps accountants and bookkeepers keep all the transactions managed at one place without having the need to spend extra effort.   QuickBooks was one of the primary accounting software items available, and numerous organizations still depend on it today. Be that as it may, as of late, bookkeeping/accounting software has started to move to the online circle, keeping in mind the move is a long way from complete (cloud accounting still hasn't got up to speed with the element choice accessible in great privately introduced programs), it's not hard to see which way the wind is blowing  (Broughton, 2008). Intuit's QuickBooks is a standout amongst the most well-known accounting software utilized by Australian small entrepreneurs. There are two key variables adding to QuickBooks' prominence as a top small business accounting software in Australia. The first is its cost. You can pay $12/month (deal cost) for QuickBooks' most essential software and a maximum of $21/month (deal cost) for the head variant. The second component is the far reaching level of features that QuickBooks gives. Entrepreneurs crosswise over Australia use QuickBooks to track their business salary, costs, and benefits. They can send a boundless measure of invoices, get to their information online over an extensive variety of portable and desktop stages (PC, Mac, tablet, or cell phone), oversee/pay bills, and make finance installments for nothing. For security, QuickBooks has quite the same security and encryption as leading banks. The above variables are only a couple features that accompany Intuit's QuickBooks  (Bi afore, 2012). Intuit Inc. was established in 1983 as the distributer of Quicken, a MS-DOS monetary administration framework for people. Animate's prosperity prompted a large group of subsequent items, including QuickBooks, which was propelled in 1992 and rapidly turned into the business' top small-business accounting arrangement. Intuit depicts QuickBooks as the foundation of its "small business environment," a business sector that records for a noteworthy offer of the organization's $3.9 billion in yearly incomes. It is effectively the top rated retail software for small-business accounting around the world  (Biafore, 2015). The principal program from Intuit, called Quicken, was intended for individual budgetary administration. It was extraordinarily fruitful and prompted the improvement of a comparative system for small organizations. The explanation behind its prevalence among entrepreneurs is on the grounds that it required no formal accounting preparing. In any case, after a few worries from accounting experts about the project's absence of a review trail and not complying with conventional accounting rules, Intuit grew new programs that tended to these worries. The new programs included review trail capacities and also twofold passage accounting capacities and other new features. The Basic and Pro forms of Quicken accounting software bundles were produced in 2000. This was trailed by the improvement of industry particular adaptations in 2003. These programs contemplated the work process procedures and wording utilized as a part of particular ventures. 2002 saw the dispatch of QuickBooks Enterprise S olutions, which was intended for medium-size organizations. Over the accompanying couple of years, new forms of the software QuickBooks were made that could be utilized as a part of various areas of the world  (Ullah, 2013). Notwithstanding supporting various stages, Intuit offers distinctive capabilities at various value focuses. QuickBooks for Windows, for instance, is accessible in Pro, Premier, and Enterprise editions. Specific editions are accessible for accounting, contracting, assembling and wholesale, philanthropies, proficient administrations, and retail organizations. Moreover, every item might be obtained on CD or by means of subscription. Subscribers get new features as they are produced, while CD clients don't get the new features until they move up to another arrival of the software  (Gardon, 2005). The permit key methodology implies Intuit can redesign clients or permit particular renditions of the software with a straightforward online transaction. It likewise has huge ramifications for SCM. The advantage is that we're continually expanding and refining a solitary codebase for Quickbooks. The engineers don't need to stress such a great amount over keeping up similarity among numerous renditions of the item. The drawback is that a full form takes off numerous, numerous adaptations of the item. It's a gigantic form  (Group, 2005). Intuit QuickBooks works in the small business market, sized at roughly 29 million businesses in the US, and it has more than 80% piece of the pie with small businesses that utilization monetary administration software. With the objective of helping a greater amount of these small businesses enhance their monetary lives, administration executed profoundly focused on and creative client division and business sector systems. QuickBooks has since quite a while ago distinguished two essential fragments of small businesses: The 400,000 accountants who are serving a large number of small businesses as the key influencers & also the five million small businesses as of now utilizing money related administration software. This left 15 million other independently employed people who have the chance to accomplish more business with QuickBooks or turn out to be new clients. These clients are portrayed by an easygoing way to deal with their money related administration, numerous seeing their small business as a leisure activity or low maintenance try. By the process of deliberately dividing its clients, QuickBooks has possessed the capacity to create particular business sector techniques to develop potential in every fragment. Addressing the need of accounting software, Intuit made QuickBooks Online Self-Employed, a simple to-use application that helps clients track pay, download costs and get ready for both quarterly and year-end assesses, all while meeting consistence prerequisites. This application goes past intangibility by adding a touch of gamification to the information passage process—for instance, clients can order costs by swiping left for operational expense and a good fit for individual. At $8/month, it's an economical passage point for clients that may, one day, require the more hearty features of QuickBooks Online  (Salmon, 2014). By effectively gathering information and arranging it, QuickBooks Online Self-Employed additionally permits clients to all the more effortlessly bear the cost of an accountant. Boxes of receipts are supplanted with information that is sorted out and effortlessly imparted to an accountant. Presently, QuickBooks ProAdvisors can serve these customers moderately, and it makes another business sector open door for everybody. How about we swing to the ProAdvisor project to perceive how QuickBooks supports referrals  (Ullah, 2013). More than a modest bunch of online software items with names like FreshBooks, Xero and Saasu have ended up as eminent QuickBooks contenders by concentrating on ease of use, cost and different components. The genuine inquiry is would they say they are sufficiently distinctive to make it worth your time and push to assess them before settling on a choice or is there truly much contrast between these choices and how they help businesses deal with their books and receipts of their clients. Here are the top contenders. Xero is a finished web-hosted accounting software arrangement which gives QuickBooks Online a keep running for its cash. Like most cloud software, Xero is offered in a SaaS model, which costs $9 to$70/month, contingent upon the features and number of clients you require. Clients likewise like Xero's day in and day out client backing and plenty of mixes with different business software. Some of the numerous features you get with Xero incorporate evaluations, invoicing, creditor liabilities, reporting, inventory administration, cost reports, finance, bank compromise, and time  (Broughton, 2008) Established 15 years prior, Saasu was one of the main cloud-based accounting software administrations around. Saasu is fundamentally intended for the Australian business sector, however it could work for small US organizations who work together in standout state and need extraordinary inventory support. Some of Saasu's best features are its adjustable dashboard and amazing inventory instruments (particularly the "combo thing" highlight). Saasu's inventory features are really the best we've found in any cloud-based accounting software, anyplace. In synopsis in the event that you have not switched to electronic or software accounting you ought to genuinely consider doing as such. Intuit Quickbooks is software that can help any small to medium business accounting less demanding than some time recently. Among the best accounting software bundles available, Quickbooks is the best. Among the main softwares, Quickbooks offers the best general bundle. It additionally offers free trial alternatives and it can be effectively downloaded from the intuit website or introduced from the album gave. There are different subscription administrations one can use according to the features they require. Generally speaking, it is accounting software one can use for their small and medium business unquestionably.   Biafore, B., 2012. QuickBooks 2013: The Missing Manual: The Official Intuit Guide to QuickBooks 2013. s.l.:"O'Reilly Media, Inc.". Biafore, B., 2015. Answers found here, s.l.: QuickBooks . Broughton, J., 2008. Wikipedia: The Missing Manual: The Missing Manual. s.l.:"O'Reilly Media, Inc.". Gardon, A., 2005. Strategies for Change. JOURNAL for Nonprofit Management, 5(4), pp. 1-58. Group, S., 2005. Learning QuickBooks Step-by-Step - Using QuickBooks Payroll - Version 2005. s.l.:The Sleeter Group. Salmon, A., 2014. Accounting Software, s.l.: Accounting Market Changes. Ullah, H., 2013. Job Development for Today - A Sector Specific Approach. The Canadian Journal of Career Development, 5(1), pp. 1-9.

Final project (lesson plan ) Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Final project (lesson plan ) - Assignment Example The whole process is art based as the students will use their artistic imaginations to come up with patterns. â€Å"Mathematics is closely related to art as by showing the students how to work out fractions, some element of art will be visible through patterns that will be used to represent fractions† (Furgerson). Learning Objective: Each student should be able to: Measure and cut square shapes of similar sizes from the printing paper. Systematically arrange the printing papers into a the construction paper Understand the basic division of numbers. Understand fraction and perform simple fractions on the construction paper and on the chalk board. Materials: Two large Construction papers per student. The color should be different to the printing paper and also of varying hues per group. A ream of printing paper per student Sufficient number of scissors or paper cutters Steps: Session one: 1) Start this lesson by giving a brief discussion on fractions and recapping what was learn t on the theoretical class about fractions, equations and division. Test the students understanding of the lesson by asking questions such as: What is a fraction? What is the importance of fractions in Mathematics? 2) Take students through some practical examples of fractions in the real world and ask them to cite others too. This should be repeated until all students show a high level of understanding of the topic of fraction. 3) Divide the class into groups while ensuring that there is an equal number of students per group. In the case where the number of students in the class is a prime number, the tutor should be included in the count and join one of the groups. The tutor will however have to play a passive role to ensure the students take lead roles in their assignment. If the number is divisible in so many ways, that is, there are so many other factors of division, all these division factors should be used at different times to help the student understand division (Furgerson). Session two: 1) Introduce to the class, the materials for the session and walk them through on how to cut the shapes as follows; use a ruler to measure a ten inch by ten inch grid. In this square, measure and mark ten equally spaced rows and a similar number of columns. This step should lead to a ten by ten 100 grids measuring one inch in dimension. 2) Cut the construction paper into a hundred pieces of an inch by an inch using a paper cutter or in the case of a scissor, use a ruler to make straight lines and cut the a hundred pieces of equal dimensions of one inch each. 3) Place ten pieces into the grid or any number that is a multiple of ten and take count together with the students. These colored pieces count will form the numerator of the fraction while the denominator is a hundred, being the total count for the grids. Repeat this process a further two times before engaging the students in their own groups to perform the process. Help out with the cutting out of the constructio n paper into square pieces as necessary and start each group with a uniform number of pieces but ensure it is a multiple of ten; for ease of work, start with twenty pieces for each group. Let the groups play with easy numbers for the numerators like 30, 40, 50, and even 60 before introducing more complex numbers like 47 and 63. Each time the students do this process, ensure that they write down the result in a

Value Diversity in Workplace Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Value Diversity in Workplace - Essay Example Every company needs to have a solid legal framework behind its diversity policies. According to Tyre, (2007) " while there is no specific law governing 'diversity' per se, the framework for diversity is shaped by judicial interpretations of actions taken to affect diversity that violate equal opportunity or constitutional rights" (n.p.) A good diversity program should not be subject to any quotas or any inherent rigidity ; in actuality it should be flexible and permeable. Setting aside a quota would merely perpetuate the notion of the 'minority', and would merely pave the path to more discrimination. Aside from that, it would serve companies significantly if it hire people based on the entirety of their qualifications, and not just utilizing race as the primary mitigating factor. The essential challenge facing employers is to create a working environment where people working at all levels are ingrained with the company's drive and vision, and they are continually recognized for their efforts. Executing this platform effectively would ensure a synergistic approach towards innovation, growth, and success. Culled from my own personal experience, I have borne witness to several situations where workforce diversity could have been a mitigating factor if only properly executed and rendered. One particular incident which particularly stands out was during my stint as a sales representative for one of the nation's leading real estate firms. The company specialized in developing properties in the Mayaguez and Aguada areas. The primary duty assigned to me was to handle its premium line of exclusive oceanfront homes, which appeal to a very high-end niche market. A good part of the company's prospective clientele is comprised of wealthy foreigners looking for a good vacation home in the country. My experience had me dealing with a rich politician hailing from the Dominican Republic. He had some close ties in the Aguada area, and was planning on buying a vacation home with his new wife. I was tasked to handle his account, and he was very keen on purchasing one of our featured properties, which was an oceanfront, three- level home worth $535,000. If the deal would fall through it would have been my biggest sale at the time, and would have greatly augmented the company's flagging fortunes. This happened at a time when the housing market was really plummeting, and real estate companies were fighting tooth and nail for every sale that they could get their hands on. The effects of the subprime mortgage crisis were far-reaching, and a sale of this magnitude would have certainly helped my company a great big deal. I had personally accompanied the couple to the site, and they were highly impressed with the oceanfront property. They were displaying a high level of interest, and I was almost certain that this was a sure sale. I could almost feel that my fat commission was on the way. The main issue emanated from what at first seemed like an almost trivial matter. On the way back from our viewing trip, the client had learned that the driver of the company car that we were using also hailed from the Dominican Republic. They engaged in light banter, and I thought that was a pleasant coincidence. My complacency soon was shaken, as

Functions of Management are Evolving in Todays Business Environment Research Paper

Functions of Management are Evolving in Todays Business Environment - Research Paper Example The contemporary managers are anticipated to take lead in the development of sound business solutions, as well as the eventual development of the considered business working policies. This has been weighed against the performance policies adopted by the firm. Contemporary managers have proceeded to create an atmosphere for idea brainstorming as well as the pooling of knowledge. This attribute has been used to steer the firm towards its considered path of success. This is unlike the policies adopted by the traditional managers who were deemed as the source of the policies with the staff being anticipated to proceed with the enactment policies. The role of managers in the shaping of the ethics has been mapped along both the implementation and the oversight. The managers have been anticipated to presume the lead in the development of the respective ethics policies, as well as their implementation. The managers take the initiative of implementation the ethics policies. This allows the rest of the staff an opportunity to be considered on the benefits of the respective policies, as well as considering the contribution they stand to offer towards the bettering of the workplace. The managers allow for the development of this reflection. Additionally, the concept of illustrating the guide for the rest of the employees remain best described via the actions of the managers. The Managers allow for the reflection of the model that is anticipated to be expressed in character reflection. Additionally, the managers are anticipated to be keen on ensuring that the rest of the staff remain committed to the ethics policy adopted by the firm. This is with respect to the prospective role they presume in the guiding of the considered staff. The managers are tasked with the promotion of the adopted habits in the workplace. Ethics comprise of such habits and govern the behavior of the respective employees. The staffs operate under the guidance of the managers, hence their contribution to the shaping of the behaviors of these persons.

Stratejik Financial Management, provide an evaluation of two projects, Essay

Stratejik Financial Management, provide an evaluation of two projects, both with five year expected lives and identical initial outlays of 110,000 - Essay Example A thorough analysis of what a business venture or investment will impart the company is one of the most important steps in sustaining profitability, maximizing company's resources, and accepting or rejecting prospective projects (Brealey et al, 2005). The payback period is regarded and widely used because of its relative simplicity. Managers prefer to use it because it is generally easy to memorize and to use (Peterson and Fabozzi, 2002). However, this technique disregards the additional cash flow which can be recouped from the project as it only focuses on the time when the whole investment will be recovered (Higgins 2005). Since the concern of the payback period is when, it does not really tell a business organization whether an investment is worth pursuing or not. Also, because of the relative view of managers on when the amount of investment should be recovered, there is no definite conclusion if project should be accepted or not. The following tables show the computation of the Net Present Value (NPVs) of the two projects under consideration. Using the expect annual cash flow, the computed NPV for project 1 is $31,740 while it is $34,200 for project 2. If NPV is only the man consideration of the business organization in capital budgeting decision, it is apparent that both of the projects should be accepted. It should be noted that using the NPV method, any project which does not yield zero NPV should be considered and pursued by the business organization. Thus, in the case of the evaluated projects above, both should be considered as they both yield positive values of NPV. 4. Explain the logic behind the NPV approach. Net Present Value (NPV) is the difference between the present value of cash inflows and the present value of cash outflows (Keown, et al, 2005). The Net Present Value (NPV) analysis is very much different from other capital budgeting techniques like payback period because it takes into account the time value of money. In the computation for total cash flow, it also takes into account the total cash flow from the investment including the depreciation and the tax shield resulting from it. Starting from the expected annual cash flows from the prospective project, managers should assign a specific required rate of return, that is, the rate of return that the companies want to generate from the investment. This is often indicated as an interest rate. For example, if the company's rate of return is 12%, the company will only accept investments which will yield 12% or higher. This method recognizes that the value of dollar today is greater than its expected value tomorrow. Thus, all the cas h flows are discounted according to the required rate of return. After generating the present value of all the expected future cash flows, it then takes the sum of these present values. Logically, if the sum is positive, it means that the project exceeds the required rate of return. In contrast, if the NPV is negative then the project fails to generate the set return. This technique is favored by more economists and managers because it is more realistic. 5. What would happen to NPV if the required rate

Auditors independence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Auditors independence - Essay Example Auditor independence is a term which truly umbrellas many different matters, and which thus must be understood fully and thoroughly in order to be understood properly altogether. Basically, in order to understand the meaning of auditor independence you must first understand the fact that basically the professional independence of auditors has truly been held responsible for that of the many corporate collapses and financial debacles that have taken place worldwide, and that this explains the essentiality of understanding the importance of the independence factor in the auditing sector. Independence is generally understood to refer to a mental state of objectivity and lack of bias. They are totally opposed against the new ruling and voiced many of the same concerns that were seen from other CPA's. He expressed concern that the regulation of the new rule cannot be sufficient by itself. It's also necessary that public investors-the users of financial reports-perceive that the numbers ar e right. These are basically and for some places entirely restricted because they give the appearance that when auditors provide these services to audit clients they are acting as an advocate for the audit client. Brown goes on then to even further illustrate this point by showing that in Canada we are looking at the SEC's proposal closely and extensively and "will formulate our regulatory response partly on your experience. It is truly and absolutely a key factor that the audit committee identifies independence violations, because they are on the front line and are closest to the action. The creation of these principles was due to increasing concern that auditors were not remaining totally independent when performing the audit. Other times the consulting professionals will have little or no interaction with auditors especially in large firms. If firms miss their earnings expectations even by a slim margin the result is an immediate decrease in stock prices. Furthermore, the last no n-audit service that is restricted to audit clients is expert services. The initial concept of auditor independence, which arose during the 19th century, was based on the premise, primarily British in origin, that a principal duty of professional accountants and auditors was the oversight of absentee investments in the existing and former colonies of the British Empire. During this period, a relatively small number of accounting firms could perform audits for a relatively large number of entities. Professional accountants and auditors could render reports on the financial performance of different entities and could work for different investor groups. The concept of auditor independence during this era did not conceive of auditors as advocates for audited entities; British investors explicitly forbade auditors from investing or working in the businesses that they audited. At the same time, as long as auditors maintained their primary loyalty to the investors back home, the scope of professional a

Interpretations of skill and skill that only few people have, but all Essay

Interpretations of skill and skill that only few people have, but all people can master - Essay Example These skills are so common that they always go unnoticed most of our life. On the other hand there is the functionality of voluntary skills. Voluntary skills are those skills that can be judged as specialized skill and had to be acquired by an individual with the dint of time management- noted or unnoted. It is this voluntary skill that gave birth to the concept of division of labor and ignited a spark to get the ball of civilization rolling. Picture this: the setting is somewhere in Southern France and the time is around the end of the last Ice Age. You will find a group of hunter-gatherers busy with their daily life. The men folks are coming back from the hard days hunt to their temporary settlement and the women of the tribe are separating the findings of the days work. And out in a corner there is an aged man busy with his Paleolithic tools- working hard to shape and sharp their jagged edges. Now, all the hunters are skillful huntsman and all the women are worthy gathers and this is almost inbuilt quality of the tribe simply because without these skills the tribe would seize to exist. It is but obvious that the sense of hunting and the eye for finding the needful elements scattered all around you requires a specific amount of skill and it should be learned to master them. Some of the women are better gatherer and some of the men are more skillful hunter than the other or average tribal. This could be termed that they have got a talent for hunting or gathering but the focal point of the skill is that this is not any specialized skill to mention as because the other members of tribe are attributed with the same skill, but the other maybe more or less skillful to their task. Thus, these skills could be termed as involuntary skills. On the other hand, the elderly person busy with his 'modernized' primitive tools is an example of the voluntary skill. It is not that he is not able to hunt but he has specialized himself into an occupation that no other in the tribe can share. It is not that this elderly Cro-Magnon is an Einstein of his tribe but it is this specialization that keeps him apart. Thus, this could be safely stated that "there are, however, certain skills that only a limited number of people have, which allow them to be more effective in areas that the average person is not. Even though only a small percentage of the population has mastered these skills, their benefits are too great to be kept to themselves. Conquering them requires time, dedication and patience. Devotion is challenging for the average person due to our busy lives." (Lamb, 87-88) In today's context, the job of a software programming professional is completely 'Greek' to a general person and the skill of a rocket engineer is completely unknown to a software programming professional. This is because these are completely specialized occupations and thereby absolutely voluntary in nature. But for both the software programming professional and rocket engineer driving is a common skill and they both are skillful in it in respective ability. Therefore we can summarize that driving is a involuntary skill that these two specialized persons share commonly. It is such a

Malcolm X and Julius Caesar Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Malcolm X and Julius Caesar - Assignment Example His father, also called Gaius Julius Caesar, was governor of the province of Asia while his mother, Aurelia Cotta, was from an influential family (Fuller 9). He got the privileged education and as a child, under his father’s watchful eye he would drive a goat chariot, pretending to be a triumphant general, perhaps an early pointer to the triumphs that would later define his adult life. Rome was ruled by such families and from an early age, the young Caesar could have been indoctrinated with the idea that his role in life was to pursue the highest political ambitions and carry on the family name. Malcolm X – born Malcolm Little – on the other hand, was born into a family on the lower ranks of the socioeconomic spectrum. His mother, Louise Norton Little, was a housewife who spent her time taking care of the family’s eight children while his father was a Baptist pastor and civil rights protester. The young Malcolm, therefore, did not have a cozy childhood the which Caesar had. One begins to see how these two men would grow to embrace the causes and have the approaches to life around them that they had in their later lives – one seeking to conquer and the other seeking to be free. Events, however, begin to shape these two lives that started out so different towards a common destiny of greatness. Both Ceasar and Malcolm X grew up in turbulent environments. The background would help give them the steely determination and ruthless ambition which they would later use to advance their respective causes. Caesar’s formative years were a time of turmoil in the Roman Republic; there were several wars from 91 BC to 82 BC. Roman politics was highly polarized. Caesar’s father suddenly died when the young Caesar was in his teens and was forced to be head of the family. He needed a guide and someone to protect him, especially from the then dictator, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, who did not like the Caesar family. He found this in the p erson of his distinguished uncle, Gaius Marius, who had achieved a position of immense importance in Roman politics and warfare. Marius was regarded as a champion of the underprivileged of Italy and with his guidance Caesar became a confident young man (Fuller 15). From around 82 BC to 80 BC, though, the dictator, Sulla, began to rid Rome of his enemies and Caesar was among the individuals targeted. Marius had died by now and Caesar was left vulnerable to Sulla’s reign of terror. The environment was so hostile, and he fled Rome to Asia Minor. Malcolm X, too, grew up in a particularly hostile environment. It was at a time when racial discrimination was at its height. His father’s civil rights activism encouraged death intimidation from the white supremacist group, Black Legion, making them migrate twice before Malcolm’s fourth birthday (Biography 1). It is noted in his biography on his official website that in 1929, Malcolm's family home in Michigan was burned by arsonists, and two years later â€Å"†¦Earl’s body was found lying across the town’s trolley tracks† (1). Malcolm and his other siblings were split up amongst various foster homes and orphanages. Hostility would remain with both Malcolm and Caesar even in their adult lives as public figures and eventually lead to their assassination.  Ã‚  

The Application of Operant Conditioning Techniques in a Secondary Classroom Essay Example for Free

The Application of Operant Conditioning Techniques in a Secondary Classroom Essay The Application Of Operant Conditioning Techniques In A Secondary Classroom Background A plethora of Studies have reported the effectiveness of operant conditioning techniques in altering the behavior of children in a number of different situations. There has been many studies in which teacher-supplied consequences have had effects on preschool and elementary school children in a regular classroom, but almost none in the secondary schooling classrooms. The results of these studies were that in smaller classrooms, students’ behavior improved with consequences given by the teacher. McAllister, Stachowiak, Baer, and Conderman now take a look at the effects of these consequences on a larger scale. This study sought to take an entire class of secondary school students and apply teacher-supplied consequences for misbehavior to discover if the behavior of the students improved. Methods The subjects consisted of 51 students ranging in age from 16-19 years, who all had similar I. Q. s and economic backgrounds. The experimental group consisted of 25 students (12 boys and 13 girls), Where as the control group consisted of 26 students (13 boys and 13 girls). Also, The experimental class was 70 minutes long and the control class was 60 minutes long. The teacher was a 23-year-old female who held a bachelors degree in education. She had one year’s experience in teaching secondary level English. The basic design of the experiment was a pretest-posttest control group design combined with the use of a multiple baseline technique in the experimental class. The behaviors chosen to be targeted were Inappropriate talking and turning around due to the fact that these behaviors had a high rate of occurrence. Inappropriate talking was classified as any vocal behavior portrayed by a student without the teacher’s permission. Also, any vocal behavior required that the student raise his or her hand before speaking, unless engaged in a group discussion. Inappropriate turning around was classified as any turning-around behavior in which the student turned more than 90 degrees away from the front of the room. An exception to this was when a student was required to turn around to distribute papers to their classmates as directed by the teacher. The observations were recorded for the experimental class using a sequentially numbered, 70-box table for each behavior. The observations of the control class were recorded using a similar, 60-box table. If either of the target behaviors occurred during any minute interval of time, it was recorded by placing a check mark in the corresponding box for that interval. Any further occurrences of the target behavior during the same time interval were not recorded. Thus, each time interval represented whether or not the behavior had occurred during the time interval opposed to the number of occurrences. A daily quantified measurement of each behavior was obtained by dividing the number of checked time intervals by the total number of intervals in that class period, which gave us a percentage of intervals in which the behavior occurred at least once. The baseline condition lasted for 28 days in which the teacher was asked to behave in her usual manner. The Average reliability for talking behavior was 90. 49% in the experimental class, and 89. 49% in the control class. Average reliability for turning behavior was 94. 27% in the experimental class and 90. 98 in the control class. Also, two aspects of the teacher’s behavior were recorded. The average reliability for teacher reprimand behavior was 92. 78% in the experimental class and 94. 84% in the control class. Average reliability for teacher praise behavior was 98. 85% in the experimental class and 97. 65% in the control class. The first experimental condition began in the experimental class on the 28th day. The teacher was to attempt to disapprove of all instances of inappropriate talking behavior whenever they occurred in a direct and verbal manner. The teacher was also asked not to threaten students with or apply other consequences such as keeping them after class or sending them to the office. In addition to these guidelines, the teacher was also asked to praise the entire class with remarks like â€Å"thank you for being so cooperative today†. The second experimental condition took place after the first one had been in effect in the experimental class for 26 days and had markedly reduced talking behavior. In this condition, the contingent social consequences for talking behavior were continued as well as implementing the same system of consequences for turning behavior. Results Inappropriate talking behavior during the baseline condition in the experimental class and the control class yielded similar results (25. 3% in the experimental class, and 23. 81% in the control class). On day 28 when the first experimental condition was implemented, inappropriate talking behavior immediately reduced. This decrease continued as time went on and finally stabilized at a level below 5%. At the same time, the control class continued to portray its previous level of inappropriate talking behavior. Inappropriate turning behavior during the baseline condition in the experimental class and control class was slowly increasing (15. 13% in the experimental class, and 14. 45% in the control class). On day 54 when the second experimental condition was implemented, the inappropriate turning behavior also began to decrease. This behavior continued to decrease during the remaining days of the study. The number of times the teacher reprimanded students for inappropriate behavior during the baseline period were 25. 76% in the experimental class and 22. 23% in the control class. During the first experimental condition, the teacher disapproved an average of 93. 33% of inappropriate talking behavior. During the second experimental condition, the teacher disapproved an average of 95. 0 % of inappropriate turning behavior. Conclusions The results clearly portray that by the teacher’s actions of praise and disapproval, she was able to reduce the amount of inappropriate talking behavior as well as the amount of inappropriate turning behavior. In reprimanding the students in a more direct manner, using names and calling the students out for misbehaving, the teacher was able to make a deeper impact on the student for his or her actions. Also, in taking away consequences such as staying after class, the teacher removed fear from the tudents and instead implemented proper behavior. The teacher also used praise to decrease the amount of inappropriate behavior of her students. She would say things like â€Å"what a great class today† or â€Å"you guys were on your best behavior today† to make the students feel good about being on their best behavior.